Evolution: the modern Synthesis

The theory of natural selection; the nature of variation; the eclipse of Darwinism.

The multiformity of evolution: The heterogeneity of evolution; the paleontological data; evolution in rare and abundant species; adaptations and their interpretation; adaptation and selection; the three aspects of biological fact; the main types of evolutionary process.

Mendelism and evolution: Mutation and selection; genes and characters; the alteration of genic expression; the evolution of dominance; types of mutation; special cases: Melanism; polymorphism; fluctuating populations; mutation and evolution.

Genetic systems and evolution: The factors of evolution; the early evolution of genetic systems; the meiotic system and its adjustment; the consequences of polyploidy; species-hybridization and sex-determination: Conclusion.

The species problem; geographical speciation: The biological reality of species; the different modes of speciation; successional species; geographical replacement: The nature of subspecies; clines character-gradients; spatial and ecological factors in geographical divergences; range-changes subsequent to geographical differentiation; the principles of geographical differentiation.

Speciation, ecological and genetic: Local versus geographical differentiation; ecological divergences; overlapping species-pairs; biological differentiation; physiological and reproductive differentiation; special cases; divergences with low competition; oceanic faunas; genetic divergences; convergent species-formation; illustrative examples.

Speciation, evolution, and taxonomy: Different types speciation and their results, species-formation and evolution; modes of speciation and systematic method.

Adaptation and selection: The omnipresence of adaptation; adaptation and function; types and examples of adaptation; regularities of adaptation; adaptation as a relative concept; preadaptation; the origin of adaptation: The inadequacy of Lamarckism; the origin of adaptations: Natural selection; adaptation and selection not necessarily beneficial to the species.

Evolutionary trends: Trends in adaptive radiation; the selective determination of adaptive trends; the apparent orthogenesis of adaptive trends; non-adaptive trends and orthogenesis; the restriction of variation; consequential evolution: The consequences of differential development; other consequential evolutionary trends.

Evolutionary progress: Is evolutionary progress a scientific concept?; the definition of evolutionary progress; the nature and mechanism of evolutionary progress; the past course of evolutionary future.

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